Whai is Dyslexia ? Is there any connection bettwen Dyslexia and xxy males ? Dyslexia is a condition which causes difficulty with reading and writing. The word "dyslexia" which literally means "difficulty with the lexicon" in Greek. It is believed to be a neurological disorder with biochemical and genetic markers[1][2][3]. People are diagnosed as dyslexic when their reading problems cannot be explained by a lack of intellectual ability, inadequate instruction, or sensory problems such as poor eyesight. The term dyslexia can be used to refer to two distinct deficits. It is most often used to describe developmental dyslexia, a learning disorder that is likely present from birth and is not related to any acute form of brain trauma. In contrast, acquired dyslexia (more often referred to as "Alexia") is the loss of reading ability following brain damage.
Developmental dyslexia appears to be the result of differences in affected individuals' neural organization for language and reading. Developmental dyslexia also appears to have a genetic component, such that it can tend to occur in multiple members of the same family. Reading difficulties in dyslexia can vary in their severity. The disorder is not restricted to childhood, but can persist through adulthood. In addition, while early reports suggested dyslexia is more prevalent in boys, more recent studies have indicated it is not sex-linked, and occurs both in boys and girls with equal frequency.
Because writing systems vary across languages, the precise reading difficulties exhibited by individuals with dyslexia will also tend to vary across languages.[citation needed] However, dyslexia is typically marked by difficulty in the speed and efficiency with which an individual reads and writes. It can also be accompanied by other non-reading difficulties such as poor phonological awareness and short-term memory.
Dyslexia is not limited to reversing the order of letters in reading or writing, as is often implied in popular culture; it may, for instance, include unexpected spelling mistakes (including phonetic spelling in English) and unusual syntax, and may be associated with dyscalculia. Most theories focus on non-primary areas in the frontal lobe and the temporal lobe.[4] Studies have linked several forms of dyslexia to genetic markers[5][6][7].
The term Dyslexia was coined in 1884 by R. Berlin [8]. Dyslexia was originally defined as a difficulty with reading and writing that could not be explained by general intelligence. One diagnostic approach is to compare their ability in areas such as reading and writing to that which would be predicted by his or her general level of intelligence. Although a variety of modern methods exist to diagnose and assist dyslexics, the causes and nature of the disease remain largely unknown.
Variations and related disorders
Dyslexia is a learning disorder. Its underlying cause is believed to be a brain-based disorder that influences the ability to read written language. It is diagnosed in individuals who fail to learn to read in the absence of a verbal or nonverbal intellectual impairment, sensory deficit (e.g., a visual deficit or hearing loss), pervasive developmental deficit or a frank neurological impairment. The following disorders are sometimes confused with dyslexia because they can also lead to difficulty reading:
Auditory Processing Disorder is a disorder that affects the ability to encode auditory information. It can lead to problems with auditory working memory and auditory sequencing.
Dyspraxia - a neurological disorder characterized by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, and kinesthetic coordination. Which is most common in dyslexics who also have an attention deficit disorder.
Verbal Dyspraxia - a neurological disorder characterized by marked difficulty in the use of speech sounds, which is the result of an immaturity in the speech production area of the brain.
Dysgraphia - a neurological disorder characterized by distorted and incorrect handwriting.
Dyscalculia - a neurological disorder characterized by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this disorder can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction.
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Facts and statistics
Between 5 and 15 percent of the population can be diagnosed as suffering from various degrees of dyslexia.
Dyslexia can be substantially compensated for with proper therapy, training and equipment.
The current consensus is that dyslexia occurs in both sexes with equal frequency. It was previously reported more frequently in males, likely due to selection factors and bias.
Dyslexia's main manifestation is a difficulty in developing reading skills in elementary school children. Those difficulties result from reduced ability to associate visual symbols with verbal sounds. While motivational factors must also be reviewed in assessing poor performance, dyslexia is considered to be present from birth. Most scientific criteria for dyslexia exclude cases that can be explained as arising from environmental factors such as lack of education or sensory deficits.
Although they are different disorders, dyslexia co-occurs with attention deficit disorder (ADD or ADHD) at a rate of 30-50%.
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Physiology and treatment
Only traditional educational remedial techniques have any record of improving the reading ability of those diagnosed with dyslexia [9]. There is no evidence that colored lenses, any visual training, or similar proposed treatments are of any use. Anecdotal reports of success can be explained by other factors.
Even a few weeks of intense phonological training (often involving breaking down and rearranging sounds to produce different words) can help noticeably improve reading skills. The earlier the phonological regimen is taken on, the better the overall result. Advanced brain scans could identify children at risk of dyslexia before they can even read, although it is thought that simple tests of balance could do the same. It is claimed that many of the underlying causes of dyslexia are of a genetic nature and that there are no cures, only strategies to work around the causes of a person's dyslexia, however these two claims are disputed.
It had been believed that keeping a child active, perhaps by giving them housework, or performing physical exercises, would help with dyslexia. However, this is false [10]. There is no scientific evidence in support of this theory.
Researchers studying the brains of dyslexics have found that during reading tasks, dyslexics show reduced activity in the left inferior parietal cortex. It is anecdotally claimed that it is not that uncommon for dyslexics who have trained themselves to cope with their affliction to develop uncannily efficient visual memories which aid in reading and comprehending large quantities of information much faster than is typical. Individuals with dyslexia commonly show 10 times more brain activity when reading. Sometimes, depending of the type and extent, also writing, listening and speaking. However, increased brain activity is not necessarily a sign of better processing. Conversely, some dyslexics may show a natural dislike of reading and, in consequence, compensate by developing unique verbal communication skills, inter-personal expertise, visual-spatial abilities and leadership skills.
In 1979, anatomical differences in the brain of a young dyslexic were documented. Albert Galaburda of Harvard Medical School noticed that the language center in a dyslexic brain showed microscopic flaws known as ectopias and microgyria. Both affect the normal six-layer structure of the cortex. An ectopia is a collection of neurons that have pushed up from lower cortical layers into the outermost one. A microgyrus is an area of cortex that includes only four layers instead of six.
These flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to auditory processing and visual processing. These and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading.
Another study regarding genetic regions on chromosomes 1 and 6 have been found that might be linked to dyslexia. Presenting the argument, dyslexia is a conglomeration of disorders that all affect similar and associated areas of the cortex.
Effect of Language Orthography
Some studies have concluded that speakers of languages whose orthography has a strong correspondence between letter and sound (e.g. Korean, Italian and Spanish) suffer less from effects of dyslexia than speakers of languages where the letter is less closely linked to the sound (e.g. English and French). [11]
In one of these studies, reported in Seymour et al.[12], the word-reading accuracy of first-grade children of different European languages was measured. English children had an accuracy of just 40%, whereas among children of most other European languages accuracy was about 95%, with of French and Danish children somewhere in the middle at about 75%; Danish and French are known to have an irregular pronunciation.
However, this does not mean that dyslexia is caused by orthography: instead, Ziegler et al.[13] claim that the dyslexia suffered by German or Italian dyslectics is of the same kind as the one suffered by the English ones, supporting the theory that the origin of dyslexia is biological. However, dyslexia has more pronounced effects on more difficult languages.
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Characteristics
Diagnosis of dyslexia is made by a qualified professional. It is typically made on an exclusionary basis - that is, dyslexia is only diagnosed when reading difficulties cannot be explained as resulting from a more general impairment affecting sensory or neurological abilities.
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General
Individuals with dyslexia:
Appear bright, intelligent, and articulate but unable to read, write, or spell at an age-appropriate level.
Have average- to above-average intelligence, yet may not test well academically; tests well orally, but not written.
Might be labelled lazy, dumb, careless, immature, "not trying hard enough," or "behavior problem."
Because dyslexia primarily affects reading while sparing other intellectual abilities, affected individuals might be categorised as not "behind enough" or "bad enough" to be helped in the school setting.
Might feel dumb and have poor self-esteem, and might be easily frustrated and emotional about school reading or testing.
Might try to hide their reading weaknesses with ingenious compensatory *strategies;
Might learn best through hands-on experience, demonstrations, experimentation, observation, and visual aids.
Can show talents in other areas such as art, drama, music, sports, mechanics, story-telling, sales, business, designing, building, or engineering.
Have related problems with inattention in a school setting; for instance they might seem to "Zone out" or daydream often; get lost easily or loses track of time; and have difficulty sustaining attention.
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Vision, reading, and spelling
Contrary to how it has been portrayed in the popular press, individuals with dyslexia do not perceive words backwards or upside down. In fact, visual problems are typically ruled out before a diagnosis of dyslexia can be made. Early studies of dyslexia did focus on the possibility that dyslexia is caused by visual difficulties, however very little evidence was found to support this theory. Likewise, there is little evidence that visual training provides effective treatment.[14].
A popular theory in the 1970s suggested dyslexics may have Irlen Syndrome, a visual deficit in which the glare of the white page against black letters causes the words to shake, shiver, spin, etc. after a few minutes of reading. The proposed treatment was the use of colored plastic overlays that were thought help anchor the words to the page. This treatment has fallen out of favor as scientific studies have failed to support these claims.
Spelling errors - Dyslexics might tend to leave vowels out of words, e.g., spelling "magic" as mjc.
Reading - Due to dyslexics' excellent long term memory, young students tend to memorize beginning readers, but are unable to read individual words or phrases.
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Hearing and speech
Has extended hearing; hears things not said or apparent to others; easily distracted by sounds.
Difficulty putting thoughts into words; speaks in halting phrases; leaves sentences incomplete; stutters under stress; mispronounces long words, or transposes phrases, words, and syllables when speaking.
Dyslexics are auditory learners
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Writing and motor skills
Trouble with writing or copying; pencil grip is unusual; handwriting varies or is illegible.
Clumsy, uncoordinated, poor at ball or team sports; difficulties with fine and/or gross motor skills and tasks; prone to motion-sickness.
Can be ambidextrous, and often confuses left/right, over/under.
May write in "mirror writing" (writing that appears backwards, but can be read when reflected in a mirror)
Dyslexics tend to "draw" letters and numbers and take a long time before any automaticity is achieved.
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Math and time management
Has difficulty telling time, managing time, learning sequenced information or tasks, or being on time.
Shows dependence on finger counting and other tricks when doing math; knows answers, but can't do it on paper.
Can count, but has difficulty counting objects and dealing with money.
Can do arithmetic, but fails word problems; when doing math must see the big picture before the detail.
Dyslexics can be gifted in math while poor in reading and cognative skills.
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Memory and cognition
Excellent long-term memory for experiences, dates, names, locations, and faces.
Poor memory for sequences, facts and information that have not been experienced.
Thinks primarily with images and feeling, not sounds or words (little internal dialogue).
Poor short-term memory - forgets things easily, particularly when a sequence of actions is required.
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Behavior, health, development and personality
Extremely disorderly or compulsively orderly.
Can be class clown, trouble-maker, or too quiet.
Had unusually early or late developmental stages (talking, crawling, walking, tying shoes).
Prone to ear infections; sensitive to foods, additives, and chemical products.
Extremely sensitive to human contact- when another person touches them they may feel very "uncomfortable."
Can be an extra deep or light sleeper; bed wetting beyond appropriate age.
Unusually high or low tolerance for pain.
Strong sense of justice; emotionally sensitive; strives for perfection.
Similar to other learning challenged people, dyslexics lag an average of two years behind their peers in emotional and social development.
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Public support
In the United States, Canada, New Zealand and in the United Kingdom, some people say that there is a lack of adequate support and a general lack of interest in the learning disabilities of children in public schools. This has recently led to legal action by private parties against public schools in the United States and state schools in the United Kingdom. In English law, the recent case of Skipper v Calderdale Metropolitan Borough School (2006) EWCA Civ 238 the Court of Appeal applied Phelps v London Borough of Hillingdon (2001) 2 AC 619 as the landmark case on the failure to diagnose dyslexia (see duty of care in English law), and to hold that the appellant could pursue her claim against her school for humiliation, lost confidence, and lost self-esteem, and for loss of earnings following its failing to diagnose and treat her dyslexia despite the fact that, as Latham LJ. says at para 29:
"The extent to which her dyslexia could have been ameliorated or provided for will always remain uncertain, as will the extent to which that would have affected her performance in public examinations; the evidence that we have includes material to suggest that she, not surprisingly, reacted adversely to the break-up of her parents marriage when she was 15, in other words at a critical time in her education. Whether any improvement in her examination results would have led to her life taking a significantly different course will also be a matter for some speculation."
Some charitable organizations like the Scottish Rite Foundation have undertaken the task of testing for dyslexia and making training classes and materials available, often without cost, for teachers and students.[15][16][17]
In England and Wales, the failure of schools to diagnose and provide remedial help for dyslexia following the House of Lords decision in the case of Pamela Phelps has created an entitlement in students with dyslexia in Higher Education to receive support funded via the Disabled Students Allowance. Support can take the form of IT equipment (software and hardware) as well as personal assistance, also known as non-medical helper support. Dyslexic students will also be entitled to special provision in examinations such as additional time to allow them to read and comprehend exam questions.
The British Disability Discrimination Act also covers dyslexia.
"In some cases, people have 'coping strategies' which cease to work in certain circumstances (for example, where someone who stutters or has dyslexia is placed under stress). If it is possible that a person's ability to manage the effects of the impairment will break down so that these effects will sometimes occur, this possibility must be taken into account when assessing the effects of the impairment." 鈥?Paragraph A8, Guidance to the Definitions of Disability
Many doctors and teachers diagnose students with Attention Deficit Disorder rather than dyslexia. Of all the conditions that can mimic, mask or co-exist with ADD, dyslexia is probably the most well known. It is also one of the most misunderstood. Dyslexia is a different learning style that affects 17-20% of school age children according to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Like ADD, the dyslexic mind functions differently than others. Dyslexic children, like ADD children, tend to have specific difficulties with words. They have difficulty recalling words, even words they are familiar with. They also have difficulty with sequencing. Letters and syllables can become inverted (like "aminal") as can entire words. ("Come here over.") The child may have trouble distinguishing between the letters "b," "d," "q" and "p."
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Controversy
"The Dyslexia Myth" is a documentary that appeared as part of the Dispatches series produced by British broadcaster Channel 4[18]. First aired in September 2005, it claims to expose myths and misconceptions that surround dyslexia. It argues that the common understanding of dyslexia is not only false but makes it more difficult to provide the reading help that hundreds of thousands of children desperately need. Drawing on years of intensive academic research on both sides of the Atlantic, it challenged the existence of dyslexia as a separate condition, and highlighted the many different forms of reading style.
Critics claim that through FMRI it has been demonstrated that the dyslexic mind processes information - mostly in pictures, sounds and emotion - about 1300 to 25000 times faster than the 'normal' brain, which is considered to work with verbal thought processes. The 'normal' person is limited to the speed of speech, as opposed to the dyslexic who thinks mainly in non-verbal terms. This means that much information is lost when trying to put thoughts into words, as to the dyslexic the process can feel similar to translating a foreign language.
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References
^ Cope, N, Harold D, Hill G, Moskvina V, Stevenson J, Holmans P, Owen MJ, O'Donovan MC, Williams J (April 2005). "Strong evidence that KIAA0319 on chromosome 6p is a susceptibility gene for developmental dyslexia". American Journal of Human Genetics 76 (4): 581-91. PMID 15717286.
^ Meng, H, Smith SD, Hager K, Held M, Liu J, Olson RK, Pennington BF, DeFries JC, Gelernter J, O'Reilly-Pol T, Somlo S, Skudlarski P, Shaywitz SE, Shaywitz BA, Marchione K, Wang Y, Paramasivam M, LoTurco JJ, Page GP, Gruen JR (Nov 22 2005). "DCDC2 is associated with reading disability and modulates neuronal development in the brain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102 (47): 17053-8. PMID 16278297.
^ Schumacher, J, Anthoni H, Dahdouh F, Konig IR, Hillmer AM, Kluck N, Manthey M, Plume E, Warnke A, Remschmidt H, Hulsmann J, Cichon S, Lindgren CM, Propping P, Zucchelli M, Ziegler A, Peyrard-Janvid M, Schulte-Korne G, Nothen MM, Kere J (Jan 2006). "Strong genetic evidence of DCDC2 as a susceptibility gene for dyslexia". American Journal of Human Genetics 78 (1): 52-62. PMID 16385449.
^ Galaburda, AM (Apr-Jun 1994). "Developmental dyslexia and animal studies: at the interface between cognition and neurology". Cognition 50 (1-3): 133-49. PMID 8039357.
^ Grigorenko, EL (Jan 2001). "Developmental dyslexia: an update on genes, brains, and environments". Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines 42 (1): 91-125. PMID 11205626.
^ Grigorenko, EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Hart LA, Speed WC, Shuster A, Pauls DL (Jan 1997). "Susceptibility loci for distinct components of developmental dyslexia on chromosomes 6 and 15". American journal of human genetics 60 (1): 27-39. PMID 8981944.
^ Grigorenko, EL, Wood FB, Meyer MS, Pauls DL (Feb 2000). "Chromosome 6p influences on different dyslexia-related cognitive processes: further confirmation". American journal of human genetics 66 (2): 715-23. PMID 10677331.
^ Berlin, R (1884). "Uber Dyslexie". Archiv fur Psychiatrie 15: 276-278.
^ No authors listed (Nov 1998). "Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision: A Subject Review". Pediatrics 102 (5): 1217-9. PMID 9794958.
^ Wilsher, CR (Apr-Jun 2002). "A miracle cure? 'tonight with Trevor McDonald', ITV, 21/01/02.". Dyslexia 8 (2): 116-7. PMID 12067185.
^ "Scientists Say Severity of Dyslexia Depends on Language", The Tech News Briefs, Los Angeles Times, March 16, 2001. Retrieved on 2006-06-06.
^ Seymour, P. H. K., Aro, M., & Erskine, J. M. (2003). Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies. British Journal of Psychology, 94, 143鈥?74.
^ Johannes C. Ziegler, Conrad Perry, Anna Ma-Wyatt, Diana Ladner, and Gerd Schulte-K枚rne, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 86 (2003) 169鈥?93
^ Metzger, RL, Werner DB (Jun 1984). "Use of visual training for reading disabilities: a review". Pediatrics 73 (6): 824-9. PMID 6374600.
^ Dyslexia Workshop Topics. Alabama Scottish Rite Foundation Learning Centers. Retrieved on June 6, 2006.
^ Scottish Rite Masonic Children's Learning Centers. Retrieved on June 6, 2006.
^ Scottish Rite Philanthropy. The Scottish Rite Bodies of Austin. Retrieved on June 6, 2006.
^ The Dyslexia Myth. Dispatches. Channel 4. Retrieved on June 6, 2006.
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See also
International Dyslexia Association
Picture thinking
Double deficit
List of people with dyslexia
Alexia (disorder)
Educational psychology
Asfedia
Landmark East School
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External links
Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDA)
Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC)
International Dyslexia Association (IDA)
Help for Parents of Dyslexic Children
Neuron Learning Fast ForWord
Achieve Publications Offers solutions for children and adults with learning disabilities or dysylexia
LD Support Offers answers to FAQs for learning disabled and gifted students
The Dyslexia Guide A to Z knowledgebase and FAQs
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Regional associations and organizations
Auditory Processing Disorder (UK)
British Dyslexia Association
Canadian Dyslexia Association
Davis Dyslexia Association International (DDAI)
Danks Davis Dyslexia
Dyslexia Council (UK)
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyslexia"
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